Racism from past to present

Racism is the belief that a race is superior to all other races and has the right to manage all other races. This term emphasizes the superiority In terms of the biological differences, such as color and gender. In the history, although racism was used to organize daily life in clans, with Greeks it gained its negative meaning. With the Renaissance and the Reform, Europeans discovered new nations and places. However, according to Europeans' understanding, these new people can only be slaves. Therefore, racism has actually begun. The first modern fascist leader ofEuropean, Mussolini had a strong belief about being racist. He did not give right to live to any thought but his thought. He killed many people. In Dalton, Hitler was another fascist leader who murdered millions of people because of their races. Thus racism has become known. Basically, as both Connelly (2004, p. 72) and Shah (2010, Para. L) say that people have tendency to be superior to others. Shah adds that racism has been used as weapons. As it was in the past, racism still exists all over the world. Proponents of the idea that racism still exist claim that due to laws, racism Anton exist.They also mention that according to the universal Declaration of Human Rights, all humans are equal. They may have a point but laws cannot prevent racism and racists. Laws are valid only racists are caught. In the united States for example, although punishment is serious, racism exists in the aspect of black and white. Blacks have separate neighborhood from whites, they do not like whites' thoughts or they do not have a white person in their environment. The reason for this is that in the past, whites saw and used blacks as slaves. In today, there is not a comprehension about Ewing slave but whites still humiliates blacks.This causes white racism. Moreover, racists do not have to show how they believe or they do not have to discriminate. They can only have thoughts of being racist and laws cannot catch or prevent t his kind of thoughts. The reason why racism still exists is the human nature regarding inferior and superior. First, in the aspect of superior, they are naturally arrogant people. This class thinks that they are superior to everyone in everything. Therefore, they humiliate other races. Due to physical characteristic of other races, they make a trooper for specific races and they become prejudice.Europeans prejudice about Arabians can be given as an example. They think that Arabians are dirty and they smell bad. This situation causes racism today. Moreover, superior race thinks that they have the right to determine other races' rights, such as how they think, where they can live or whether they can live or not. Hitler for example, had a great power to take lives of Jewish people. Today, similarly to Hitter's reason, there is a problem called smuggling of people. Generally, people who are smuggled are from either Africa or Middle East, they were never European.Smuggling soul exists be cause superior races think that they can employ them illegally. Second, in aspect of inferior people, there is a fear of superior ones. Being a criminal race produces that kind of fear. As Russell (1 998, p. 124) mentions Willow's thesis about black crime causes white fear, white racism caused by Black and Latino men. If they did not have this high rate of crime, there would not be white fear. Furthermore, another kind of fear from superior happens as action and reaction. If Europeans are racists to Arabians, then stay away from Europeans because they feel inferior.Another reason why racism still exists is what happened in history. They may have not happened because of racism but they trigger racism today. First, events about economy have really changed the world. After the Reform and the Renaissance, colonialism came into the world. India was one of the countries colonized by England. As Marvin states, â€Å"At any rate, no serious effort has ever been made to colonize the country , and the English who go to India think only of acquiring the largest amount of money in the shortest possible time, and returning home to enjoy it in their beloved fatherland† (2006, p. ). Thus, today racism still exists between India and England. Second, political history caused racism today as well. In the history, states struggled for independence. In Ottoman Empire, for example, there were many nations who live peacefully. However, when the Ottoman Empire started to fall down, Armenian rebelled. They wanted to have their own country in the soil that they live in but it belonged to the Ottoman Empire. Because of this situation, Ottomans and Armenian had disagreement. Then that disagreement cause today the so-called Armenian genocide. Now, Turkey andArmenian are prejudiced to each other because of what happened in history. Bad treatment to Armenian or reverse produces racism in both countries. All in all, racism still exists in our world. People should remember that as worl d and politic changes, terms meanings will either be change or be broaden. While the term racism was used for people who support his race, then it is used for humiliation. In our world, it almost lost its meaning because today anything can be racism, such as prejudice or difference of thoughts among nations. Racism is not biological differences anymore.

The Effects of Social Media on Communication Skills

AbstractThis paper summarizes the effects of social media on hindering communication skills and reducing social activity in the world. Each reason is supported by evidence by referring to four published books and some articles online. It focuses mainly on social media via the Web, such as, Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace, to which many of the youth are exposed to nowadays, and this exposure has led to addiction. This paper informs people about the issue of social media affecting communication skills and calls for means to solve this problem.The Effects of Social Media on Communication SkillsRebecca Javeleau, a 15 year-old Facebook user, meant to invite her 15 closest friends to her birthday party, but ended up inviting over 20,000 people, 8000 of which RSVP’d for the event. The birthday girl went into hiding when more than 1500 guests showed up and around 100 police officers were needed to keep the crowd under control. Did these 21000 people really know the girl? Are they reall y considered as â€Å"friends† of hers'? Modern society seems convinced that social media like Twitter and Facebook keep people connected and grow their social skills with friends and peers.But what actually these social networking sites are doing to people is that they're mutually isolating networks that part people from meaningful interactions with one another and make them less human. Many scholars see new communication technology as a threat to the discipline of interpersonal communication (Konijn et al. , 2008). Social media like Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp, and other applications are hampering our social skills. Social networking sites deteriorate communication skills because people forget proper manners as they constantly use these sites.The more time these people spend on social sites, the less time they will have to spend socializing in person. Socializing via social sites lacks body signals and other nonverbal cues such as voice quality, tone, facial expressions, an d many others, therefore it isn't an adequate replacement for face-to-face communication since these people won't be able to communicate and socialize effectively in person with one another. In the real world, the effective communication skills are key to success.A month ago, I received a friend request from a Facebook user whom I didn't know. After some days of chatting and better knowing each other, we decided to meet in person and have a real conversation. When we met in a cafe at around noon, we greeted one another and sat in our places. It was very embarrassing when we spent half an hour staring at each other and not knowing what to talk about. That is when I realized that these social networking sites are truly hindering our social interactions and the development of strong communication skills.According to Konijn et al.(2008),â€Å"Researchers speculated that CMC would lead to the sharing of impersonal messages due to the lack of facial and tonal cues† (p. 15). Therefo re we can say that social media causes effects on a person’s ability to communicate in a proper manner, which includes body signals, voice, and other cues. As Dimbleby R. & Burton G. state it (1992), â€Å"Body language tells us a lot about people's feelings, attitudes, and intentions† (p. 37). Moreover, NVC such as body signals relates to our perception of others, and relates to the idea of feedback (Dimbleby R. & Burton G. , 1992, p. 40).Another reason why these social networking sites are reducing communication skills is because they lack practice of active listening which is needed during conversations in the real world. Great communication skills take practice and that can't be done by sitting on a sofa and typing on your computer or cellphone, it can be done by appearing in person and actively communication with one another. When the news spread all around that an application was available in the market, a free application through which anyone who shares contacts can chat with each other all day long without any payment.This application was called â€Å"Whatsapp†. My friends encouraged me to download and use this application. We spent hours and days sitting at home chatting with one another. It was time to go back to school. When the teacher actually asked us to have a dialogue in the class, I realized that it was easier for me to chat on my phone instead of speaking out loud in front of everyone, which was pretty difficult to handle.It wasn't only my case, as the whole class was addicted to these kinds of applications or  messengers or sites, that cause people to be like robots, typing all day long, while a phone call could make it easier for them to save time and save energy. I believe these applications or whatsoever destroyed our ability to communicate in face-to-face interactions. In a European study of 635 participants ages 16-55 years old who visited a website and completed an online questionnaire, 48. 9% reported preferring to use their cell phones for texting over voice calls and 26. 1% reported texting too much. This study also measured levels of loneliness, expressive control, interaction anxiousness, and conversational involvement.Two significant findings were that 61% of the participants stated they say things in text that they would not feel comfortable saying face-to-face and 64% stated they feel they are able to express their true feelings best in text messages rather than in face-to-face interactions or voice calls (Reid & Reid, 2007). Social media hinders communication skills because it leads to isolation. Social media from Facebook to Twitter have made us more densely connected than ever, yet for all this connectivity, we have never been lonelier and this loneliness is making us physically and mentally ill.Some people choose to sit at home all day pretending to be someone they're not instead of going outside and having real conversations and interactions. Then, we can say that on social net works, everybody tries to come across at their very best often embellishing their profiles, making Facebook a reference group against which one starts to compare one's own popularity and success, which may lead to cases of depression and isolation if one finds the other more successful than himself/herself.A recent observation done by myself on the issue of social media leading to isolation showed that people want to constantly be visible amongst their peers and be the best among all. Those who weren't able to have more â€Å"friends† than their peers were actually depressed and felt left out of the group. A tragic story alarms people of the issue of social media leading to isolation and depression, when a 15 year-old girl hanged herself because her friends at school were bullying her and she felt lonely and her depression let her to commit suicide.Konijn et al (2008) study found the following : Being ignored or ostracized has negative psychological consequences. For example, ostracism has been associated with depressed mood, anxiety, loneliness, helplessness, invisibility, and frustration. Being ostracized threatens the basic human needs for belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence. This can be anything like unanswered emails, or being consistently ignored in a chat room. (p. 203) There are critics that say social networking sites lead to larger non-diverse social networks, hence increasing communication skills.It is true that these networking sites make it easier for people to connect all around the world, but is that a cause to increase communication skills? Why, then, two people sitting in the same room chat on their IPhones together while they could have a real face-to-face communication? Why do these people feel dead on one's feet to actually walk 10 second to the hallway to talk with their friends and have a real conversation? Even if these social networking sites lead to larger non-diverse social networks, are these relationship s real?How can you prove if the one you are communicating with is a person you can trust? According to Mintz et al. , (2012), â€Å"driven by younger, technologically savvy students, Myspace and Facebook have grown exponentially into sites where people can and do pretend to be who they aren't†. Another party criticizes the fact that these social networking sites are ruining communication skills by saying people use this technology to get in touch with one another and plan for a meeting.In addition to that, they criticize by saying that internet users are more likely to visit a cafe or coffee shop than people who don't use the internet. Well, don't these people who visit coffee shops hold their laptops in their hands and sit browsing on the Internet while drinking a coffee or having a bite? If they really meant to plan a meeting and to interact with one another then why do these people leave their cellphones and laptops away from sight? How did technology make it easier for pe ople to get in touch with one another?Did it make it easier by allowing anyone to see one’s privacy and know every single detail about that person? Doesn’t this eventually lead to spam and identity theft? How can we protect ourselves from harmful remarks and actions when the identity of the perpetrator is unknown? As Konijn et al (2008) states, â€Å"by focusing on symbolic shifts, time/space relationships, interactivity, sensory bias, and conditons of attendance, media ecology provides a framework for understanding how interpersonal communication is shifted from face-to-face to mediated contexts† (p.20).Social networking sites not only decrease the number of face-to-face interactions, but they greatly deplete the social skills that are important in any society. Facebook is a great tool to connect with one another but it is tech-deep and we need skin-deep, we need real actively involved connections and conversations. This trend causes human beings to become cons umed by a virtual world while they're simultaneously pulled further away from reality.

Organic Foods Pdf Essay

Abstract: During the last decade, consumers’ trust in food quality has decreased drastically, mainly because of growing ecological awareness and several food scandals (e. g. BSE, dioxins, bacterial contamination). It has been found that intensive conventional agriculture can introduce contaminants into the food chain. Consumers have started to look for safer and better controlled foods produced in more environmentally friendly, authentic and local systems. Organically produced foods are widely believed to satisfy the above demands, leading to lower environmental impacts and higher nutritive values. So far, studies have partly con? rmed this opinion. Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues but, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars than conventional crops. Organic crops also contain statistically more mineral compounds and usually have better sensory and long-term storage qualities. However, there are also some negatives: plants cultivated in organic systems generally have 20% lower yields than conventionally produced crops. Several important problems need to be addressed in the coming years: environmental, bacterial and fungal contamination of organic crops and, the most essential issue, the impact of organic food consumption on animal and human health.  © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: organic plant crops; quality; yield; composition; nutrition; vitamins; phenolics; sugars; nitrates; nitrites; pesticides; dry matter; health; sensory qualities. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT FOOD PRODUCTS There are several important factors in?uencing the quality of food products that also are relevant to organically produced plant products. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the basic factors are the quality of the environment (abiotic factors) and the levels of pest and pathogen damage (biotic factors) to which plants are subjected. The main components of the environment (air, water, soil) have to be unpolluted if the crops obtained are expected to be of high nutritive quality. Many environmental contaminants enter the food production chain (soil–plant–animal–human organism), causing signi? cant problems in human health. 1 These contaminants include heavy metals, pesticide residues, nitrogen compounds, mycotoxins, chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), aromatic hydrocarbons (e. g. benzo[a]pyrene), plant growth stimulators (e. g. choline chloride), antibiotics, hormones, radioactive isotopes and plastic substances (monomers). Climate and weather are also important factors, as well as soil type and pH, soil cultivation, fertilisation and conditions of crop storage after harvest. ? Biotic factors can have also a signi? cant impact on crop quality. The main biotic factors are cultivar choice, bacterial and fungal contamination (disease) and pest damage. Cultivars of the same crop species can differ signi? cantly in nutritive quality. For example, the content of ? carotene in carrots (Daucus carota L. ) can vary between 7. 19 and 13. 84 mg g? 1 depending on the cultivar. 2 The main potential source of bacterial contamination in plant crops is animal manure used in organic farming. Contamination can take place via the roots or by water splashing onto the leaf surfaces. The most important organisms are several species of facultative anaerobic bacteria (Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis), protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii), tapeworms, viruses and prions. The results obtained so far are contradictory. Some studies indicate higher bacterial contamination in organic crops, while others show the opposite. 3 Mycotoxins (produced by fungi) originate mostly in the ? eld but can also develop during storage. Owing to the fact that fungicides are not used Correspondence to: Ewa Rembialkowska, Organic Foodstuffs Division, Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Warsaw Agricultural University, Nowoursynowska 159 C, PL-02-776 Warszawa, Poland E-mail: ewa rembialkowska@sggw. pl (Received 24 October 2006; revised version received 29 January 2007; accepted 8 February 2007). Figure 1. Factors in? uencing the quality of organic food products. in organic agriculture, some authors believe that organically produced foods will contain higher concentrations of mycotoxins. However, literature reviews show that mycotoxin concentrations are usually similar or reduced in organic compared with conventional products. 4 The most notorious mycotoxins are those produced by Fusarium species on cereal crops and maize. One of the reasons for lower Fusarium infections in organic grains could be the lower nitrogen concentrations in the tissues. 5 Insect pests also exert an in? uence on crop quality. Because of the ban on synthetic pesticides in organic agriculture, insects often damage fruits and vegetables, thereby diminishing their yield and harming their appearance. However, it is not clear whether they also reduce their nutritive quality. In contrast, there is evidence that organically grown plants contain more phytochemicals (which are natural insecticides) and are therefore more resistant to insect damage. 6 They can also play a positive role in human health, because several phytochemicals, being plant defence compounds, are connected with possible health bene? ts (Brandt K, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). Regulations on organic plant production allow actions that avoid many negative features of crop quality if they are consistently performed by producers. In order to ful? l these demands and to offer highquality products to consumers, an ef? cient and airtight certi? cation and control system must be implemented. In most countries such systems are quite ef?cient, though a rapid increase in the number of organic farms could lead to problems with a subsequent loosening of regulatory control. Therefore the main rule should be ‘trust is good, but control is better’. Moreover, the ? nal quality of organic food products is in? uenced by the effective implementation of 2758 the regulations on animal production and organic food processing. Only precise ful? lment of all these regulations can guarantee the best organic food quality (Fig. 1). IMPACT OF REGULATION ON ORGANIC PLANT PRODUCTION The regulations for organic plant production are clear and detailed. 7 The European Union (EU) regulation published in 19918 contains parts that relate directly to the composition of organic plant products. The most important aspects of this regulation include:7 †¢ a ban on genetic engineering and genetically modi? ed organisms (GMOs); †¢ lower nitrogen levels – a maximum limit for manure application of 170 kg N ha? 1 year? 1 ; †¢ a ban on synthetic pesticides; †¢ a ban on synthetic mineral fertilisers; †¢ a ban on growth promoters. Organic farmers must follow the above regulations if they want to pass the inspection procedure every year and receive a certi? cation document. If all requirements are complied with, several qualitative results can be expected. The most important conclusions from scienti? c comparisons are given below. CONTAMINANTS Nitrates and nitrites A large amount of data shows that the content of nitrates and nitrites is distinctly higher in conventionally cultivated than in organic crops. This is important, because nitrates can easily be converted into nitrites, which can cause a dangerous illness called methaemoglobinaemia in babies, infants and elderly people. 9 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products. Moreover, nitrites can react with amines to create nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic substances causing cancer of the digestive tract and leukaemia. 10 This process is dangerous not only for young children but also for adults of any age. Based on a large amount of data, the nitrate content of organic and conventional crops has been compared. On average, the nitrate content of organic crops was 49% that of conventional crops. 11 These and other data provide a basis for stating that organic methods lead to an approximately 50% reduction in the intake of nitrates and nitrites by humans. Pesticides Governments place legal limits, known as the Maximum Residue Level (MRL), on the level of pesticides that can be present in food. The MRL is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats. Governments maintain that consumption of pesticides below the MRL is not a health risk. However, at lower levels, pesticides are known or suspected to cause many diseases and health problems, including cancer. 12 The main problem is that the MRL for pesticides is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats for a relatively short period. Virtually nothing is known about the effects of consuming combinations of potentially hundreds of different pesticides over the course of a lifetime. We do not and cannot know explicitly what is causing what, so precaution is the main tool available to us (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). The levels of pesticide residues found in organic crops are de? nitely lower than those present in conventional crops (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). It can be expected that eating organic foods will result in lower pesticide levels in human milk and body tissues. There is some evidence con? rming this hypothesis. Researchers in France found that the level of pesticide residues in the milk of breast-feeding women decreased signi? cantly with an increase in the proportion of organic food in the daily diet (from 25 to 80%). 13 All available results show that the content of pesticide residues is signi? cantly lower in organic crops, which creates safer health conditions for consumers eating organically. Heavy metals Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury and zinc are introduced into the food chain from various sources, including industry, transportation, communal wastes and agriculture. For example, mineral phosphoric fertilisers used in conventional agriculture can introduce cadmium into crops, but the metal industry and transportation also cause cadmium contamination of soils and crops. Therefore there are no clear results in studies comparing the levels of J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa heavy metals in organic and conventional crops. Some data point to higher levels in conventional crops, while others show the opposite. 11 A problem to be solved is whether organic farming (composting, increasing the organic matter in soil, pH, etc. ) can diminish the intake of heavy metals by cultivated plants. DESIRABLE COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS Vitamins, phenolic compounds and mineral compounds The nutritive value of foods depends mainly on them having the appropriate content of compounds indispensable for proper functioning of the human organism. The content of phyto-compounds in plant foods is a topic of great interest in food science nowadays. A growing body of evidence indicates that secondary plant metabolites (phytochemicals) play a critical role in human health and may be nutritionally important. 14 There are two main theories explaining the factors in? uencing the levels of compounds in plants. 15 The carbon/nitrogen (C/N) balance theory states that, when nitrogen is easily available, the plant will ? rst make compounds with high nitrogen content, e. g. proteins for growth and nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and non-protein amino acids such as the Allium ? avour precursors. When nitrogen availability is limiting for growth, the metabolism changes more towards carboncontaining compounds, e. g. starch, cellulose and non-nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as phenolics and terpenoids. The second, newer theory is the growth/ differentiation balance hypothesis (GDBH). 15 It states that the plant will always assess the resources available to it and optimise its investment in processes directed towards growth or differentiation. The term ‘differentiation’ encompasseses increased formation of defence compounds as well as accelerated maturation and seed development. The C/N balance theory is a special and typical case of the GBDH theory, since low nitrogen availability is the most common growth-limiting condition in natural ecosystems. 15 To verify the above theories, several authors investigated the content of some vitamins and phyto-compounds in organically and conventionally produced crops. In order to summarise different data, for each organic–conventional comparison a % difference was calculated: [(organic ? conventional)/conventional] ? 100 The collected data for several desirable components are presented in Table 1. The role of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in the human organism is basic for several metabolic functions, mainly because it is one of the major cellular direct antioxidants (along with glutathione) and is a 2759 E Rembialkowska Table 1. Contents of desirable components in organic crops relative to those in conventional crops Component Vitamin C Phenolic compounds Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Mean % difference +28. 7 +119. 3 +21. 1 +29. 3 +13. 6 Range (%) ? 38 to +135. 5 ? 56. 6 to +734. 2 ? 73 to +240 ? 35 to +1206 ? 44 to +240 Number of studies 21 15 16 17 18 production and reduces carbohydrate production. Moreover, the increased protein produced in response to high nitrogen levels contains lower amounts of certain essential amino acids such as lysine and therefore has a lower quality with respect to human nutrition. Source: Ref. 17 and author’s own calculations. cofactor for certain enzymes. Vitamin C also supports detoxication and resistance of the human organism. The higher content of vitamin C in organic crops is bene? cial to health, because vitamin C inhibits the in situ formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines, thus diminishing the negative impact of nitrates on the human organism. 10 Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. Plant-based phenolic metabolites are particularly interesting because of their potential antioxidant activity and medical properties, including anticarcinogenic activity. 15 According to Benbrook,16 organic farming has elevated antioxidant levels in about 85% of the cases studied to date and, on average, levels are about 30% higher compared with foods grown conventionally. Mineral compounds containing iron, magnesium and phosphorus are fundamental for human health. According to Worthington,17 the higher mineral content in organic crops may be connected with the higher abundance of micro-organisms in organically managed soil. These micro-organisms produce many compounds that help plants to combine with soil minerals and make them more available to plant roots. Unfortunately, there have been only a few studies on other vitamins such as ? -carotene, B1 and B2 and the results are contradictory. Therefore no general conclusions can be drawn about these compounds. Total sugars A higher total sugar content in plant crops not only improves their taste but is also an important component of their technological quality, e. g. in the case of sugar beet. Studies clearly indicate a higher content of total sugars, mainly sucrose, in organically produced vegetables and fruits such as carrots, sugar beet, red beetroot, potatoes, spinach, Savoy cabbage, cherries, redcurrants and apples. 11,18 Proteins Several studies analysed in review papers11 show that the quantity of crude protein is lower in organic than in conventional crops but that the quality is better as measured by essential amino acid content. According to Worthington,17 nitrogen from any kind of fertiliser affects the quantity and quality of protein produced by plants. Provision of a large amount of nitrogen to a plant increases protein 2760 SENSORY QUALITY OF ORGANIC FOODS Many studies have proved quite unequivocally that vegetables and fruits from organic farms have a better taste and smell. This was found for carrots and potatoes, celery and red beetroot, head cabbage and tomatoes as well as for apples, cherries and redcurrants. 11 Organic fruits contained more total sugars, which probably in?uenced the better taste perception by consumers. Better taste and smell have also been found for bread made from organic grain, which also had better crumb elasticity. 6 Interesting studies have been conducted on animal food preference in which animals were given organic or conventional fodder. Most studies have proved a clear animal preference for foods produced organically; such studies have been conducted on rats, mice, hens and rabbits. 19 Preference for organic fodder was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested. 20 The reason for this was probably the difference in taste between organic and conventional fodder. STORAGE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT CROPS Transpiration losses and decay processes, as well as changes in nutritive value, normally take place during the storage period of potatoes and other vegetables. However, these changes can proceed at different rates and to differing degrees. Most of the available data indicate that the decay process is slower in organic crops, which therefore show better storage quality after the winter period. A review study based on many sources21 concluded that the storage quality of vegetables and fruits was better in the case of plants grown on organic farms (Table 2). The better storage quality of organic crops Table 2. Storage losses of carrots, potatoes and various fruits and vegetables from organic (ORG) and conventional (CONV) farmsa Carrots Potatoes Fruits and vegetables ORG CONV ORG CONV ORG CONV Number of quoted studies Storage loss (% of initial mass) a 15 33 15 40 22 22 22 30 53 28 53 38 Average data based on literature review. 21 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products Table 3. Positive nutritive attributes of organic plant products No. 1 2 3 4 5 Attribute Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues than conventional crops. There is no clear difference in the content of heavy metals between organic and conventional crops Organic plant products contain, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars. However, the level of ? -carotene is often higher in conventional plant products Organic plant products contain statistically more iron, magnesium and phosphorus. They also tend to contain more chromium, iodine, molybdenum, selenium, calcium, boron, manganese, copper, potassium, sodium, vanadium and zinc Organic plant products usually have better sensory quality. They have a clearer smell and taste and are sweeter and more compact because of their higher dry matter content Preference for organic products is typical not only for humans but also for animals such as rats, rabbits and hens. This preference was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested Vegetables and fruits from organic production maintain better quality during winter storage, showing lower mass losses due to transpiration, decay and decomposition processes. A possible reason for this is their higher content of dry matter, minerals, sugars and other bioactive compounds 6 Table 4. Negative and unclear aspects of organic plant products No. 1 Negative aspect Plants cultivated in organic systems have, as a rule, signi?cantly (on average 20%) lower yields than conventionally produced crops. This increases their price and creates for many consumers a barrier to buying organic foods Unclear aspect Environmental contamination (heavy metals, PCBs, dioxins, aromatic hydrocarbons) can be similar in organic and conventional crops, because the impact of industrial, transport and communal sources is similar on organic and conventional farms located in the same area Bacterial (mainly Salmonella and Campylobacter) Contamination can sometimes be higher in organic produce, but scienti?c evidence of this is still not clear Mycotoxins can contaminate both organic and conventional foods, but scienti? c data are contradictory The impact of organic food consumption on human health and wellbeing remains essentially unknown in spite of some positive indications, so the subject needs further study 2 3 4 was probably associated with a higher content of dry matter in their ? esh, resulting in less extensive decay and decomposition. Lower losses in organic production have not only nutritive but also economic bene? ts. In conventional systems, high yields are produced but signi?cant losses during storage reduce the economic bene? ts. CONCLUSIONS Recent food crises (BSE, foot and mouth disease, food contamination by dioxins, toxic fungi, Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria) have caused consumers to look for more authentic and safer foods. Organic food production is widely recognised as being more friendly to the environment, more controlled and better for animal welfare. On the other hand, many data indicate that a lot of food contaminants have their source in conventional methods of agriculture, animal production and food processing. The negative effect of the continuing enthusiastic use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture is potentially huge. Therefore safer methods of agricultural production, mostly organic methods, are very important. Studies conducted in various countries have indicated several positive attributes of organic plant J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa products (Table 3) but also a few negative and unclear aspects (Table 4). To summarise the positives, organic food should be recommended for all, but especially for young babies, pregnant and breast-feeding women, elderly and chronically ill people and vegetarians. The last group obviously consumes a lot of vegetables, which can contain too high levels of carcinogenic substances when produced conventionally. The lower content of nitrates and higher content of phenolic compounds and vitamin C in organic crops are especially important for health. Nitrates are easily converted in the digestive tract into poisonous nitrites, which are the precursors of carcinogenic nitrosamines. This process is hampered by vitamin C, and carcinogenesis is retarded by phenolic compounds and other dietary phytochemicals present at higher levels in organically produced crops. Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. REFERENCES 1 Rembialkowska E, Organic agriculture and food quality, in Ecological Agriculture and Rural Development in Central and Eastern European Countries, Vol. 44 of NATO Science Series, ed. by Filho WL. IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 185–204 (2004). 2761 E Rembialkowska ? ? 2 Schuphan W, Biochemische Sortenprufung an Gartenmohren ? ? als neuzeitliche Grundlage fur planvolle Zuchtungsarbeit. Z? chter 2:25–43 (1942). U 3 Franz E, van Bruggen AHC and Semenov AM, Risk-analysis of human pathogen spread in the vegetable industry: a comparison between organic and conventional production chains, in Bayesian Statistics and Quality Modelling in the AgroFood Production Chain, ed. by van Boekel MAJS, Stein A and van Bruggen AHC. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 81–94 (2004). 4 FAO, Food Safety as Affected by Organic Farming (Twentysecond FAO Regional Conference for Europe). [Online]. (2000). Available: www. fao. org/docrep/meeting/x4983. htm. 5 Van Bruggen AHC and Termorshuizen AJ, Integrated approaches to root disease management in organic farming systems. Aust Plant Pathol 32:141–156 (2003). 6 Bjorn G and Fruekilde AM, Cepa onions (Allium cepa L) grown conventionally and organically – similarities and differences. Gron Viden 153:1–6 (2003). (in Danish). 7 Hansen B, Alroe HF, Kristensen ES and Wier M, Assessment of food safety in organic farming. DARCOF Working Paper 52 (2002). 8 EU, Council Regulation No. 2092/91 of 24 June 1991 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs. OJL 198, 22. 7 P. 1 (1991). ? 9 Szponar L and Kierzkowska E, Azotany i azotyny w srodowisku oraz ich wplyw na zdrowie czlowieka. Post Hig Med Do? w s 44:327–350 (1990). 10 Mirvish SS, Vitamin C inhibition of N-nitroso compounds formation. Am J Clin Nutr 57:598–599 (1993). 11 Rembialkowska E, Wholesomeness and Sensory Quality of Potatoes and Selected Vegetables from the Organic Farms. Fundacja ? Rozwoj SGGW, Warszawa (2000). 12 BMA, The BMA Guide to Pesticides, Chemicals and Health. Report of Science and Education. British Medical Association, London (1992). 13 Aubert C, Pollution du lait maternel, une enquete de terre vivante. Quatre Saisons Jardinage 42:33–39 (1987). 14 Lundeg? rdh B and M?rtensson A, Organically produced plant a a foods – evidence of health bene? ts. Acta Agric Scand B 53:3–15 (2003). 15 Brandt K and Molgaard JP, Organic agriculture: does it enhance or reduce the nutritional value of plant foods? J Sci Food Agric 81:924–931 (2001). 16 Benbrook CM, Elevating Antioxidant Levels in Food through Organic Farming and Food Processing. An Organic Center of Science Review. Organic Center for Education and Promotion (2005). 17 Worthington V, Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and grains. J Alternative Compl Med 7:161–173 (2001). 18 Zadoks JC, Development of Farming Systems. Pudoc, Wageningen (1989). 19 Williams CM, Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proc Nutr Soc 61:19–24 (2002). ? 20 Woese K, Lange D, Boess Ch and Bogl KW, A comparison of organically and conventionally grown foods – results of a review of the relevant literature. J Sci Food Agric 74:281–293 (1997). 21 Bulling W, Qualit? tsvergleich von ‘biologisch’ und ‘konventionell’ a erzeugten Feldfruchten. Regierungsprasidium, Stuttgart (1987). 2762 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa.

Principles of Critical Care Nursing - Leadership and teamwork when Essay - 1

Principles of Critical Care Nursing - Leadership and teamwork when planning care and making decisions - Essay Example Besides, the clinicians must ascertain the patient’s variables such as salt and diet intakes alongside the ability to adhere to the therapeutic regimen (Aronson, 2009). It is critical to maintaining optimal potassium levels of at least 4.0 mmol/L for this particular patient besides a routine potassium monitoring. There is also need for the joint administration of Magnesium to enhance the cellular uptake of potassium (Urden, Stacy & Lough, 2014)). The Intravenous piggyback infusions of electrolyte require that the administration be executed based on free-flow protected devices such as an infusion pump. Patients must meet certain conditions before the initiation of the Potassium (SCr 40Kg). The electrolyte replacement protocols such as potassium Phosphate or Chloride may be ordered individually or jointly (Kee, Paulanka & Polek, 2010). Initiating intravenous Potassium therapy is hazardous and should meet certain strict requirements. The intravenous treatment of hypokalemia has to be instigated only when the enteral route cannot be availed or confirmed not to achieve the standard elevation of serum Potassium based a clinically set timeframe (Kee, Paulanka & Polek, 2010). The guidelines for initiation of replacing Potassium must be determined by the urgency of Potassium replacement and should only be performed in case of cardiac arrhythmia, low serum Potassium (

Income and Substitution Effects of a Price Change Essay

Income and Substitution Effects of a Price Change - Essay Example Complete, reflexive and transitive are the axioms of consumer theory. The theory of consumer preferences can be formulated on the basis of the above axioms (Samuelson, 1956. p.3). The two axes represent a typical consumption of a consumer of goods 1 and 2. A consumption bundle (x1,x2) is taken along with the other consumption bundles that are preferred weakly to the selected bundle. This is what we mean by a set that is weakly preferred. The indifference curve is formed by the bundles forming the boundary of the selected set i.e. the bundles that will provide the consumer as much satisfaction as the selected bundle. The indifference curve can be drawn through any consumption bundle. One of the disadvantages in using indifference curve analysis is that it shows only the consumption bundle perceived by the consumer is indifferent. It fails to capture the bundles which are better or worse. One of its characteristics is indifference curve that represents distinct preferential levels cannot cross. The rate at which the consumer likes to substitute goods is called the marginal rate of substitution. MRS is derived from the slope of the indifference curve The budget constraint of the consumer is p1x1+p2x2=m. The consumption of good 1 is taxed at a rate of t. The new budget constraint will be (p1+t)x1+p2x2=m. The effect of the change in price on the demand conditions is shown in the figure below. The set of bundles that are preferred by a consumer to the optimal choice is above the indifference curve and the set of bundles that is against the affordability is above the indifference curve. Hence the optimal choice is the best bundle that can be chosen by the consumer. Now, an income tax is taken into consideration which raises the revenue by the same amount as the tax. The form of that budget constraint will be p1x1+p2x2=m-tx1*, where tx1* is the rise in revenue because of tax.

Video Sharing on Social Media Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 11500 words

Video Sharing on Social Media - Dissertation Example Users have the option to restrict viewership but when the video owners seek mass audience they would not bother to protect their videos and music under copyright laws. Thus, with the aim to establish that public videos are posted aimed at cooperation and sharing, three objectives were set at the beginning of the study. Qualitative primary and secondary data was gathered after extensive literature review on the subject. Through qualitative analysis, all the study objectives have been achieved. The study highlights that the most popular video-sharing site is YouTube and its promotion can be enhanced by sending out tweets on the video. However, Facebook also appears to be a popular social networking site for sharing pictures and files. Users share files with different motivations which could be either the desire to individuate or the desire for self-enhancement. Users also derive satisfaction is letting others know who they are. However, sharing of videos require some amount of expertis e in the use of social media. This gives rise to issues of copyright and privacy. The study finds that users are aware of privacy issues but when the intention is to share, the issue of privacy does not arise. At the same time, with the intention is to share and attract a mass audience it is pointless getting the files copyrighted. Social networking sites offer the facility to maintain privacy if required. When information is shared, others merely ‘see’ the information but derive no shared experience, vision or meaning out of it. Therefore, even if they share videos, they can maintain privacy, they remain individuated. The study concludes that sharing of videos on social media does not compromise on issues of privacy, and it is up to the users to maintain their privacy and remain individuated.

Fundamental of Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fundamental of Advertising - Essay Example Moreover, if the endorsing celebrity were to be experiencing scandals, then this could actually damage the corporate image of the advertiser. In addition, recommendation fatigue could ensue, if there were to be a high frequency use of the same celebrity (Huang, Hsieh, & Chen, 2011, p. 9971). It has been a long standing practice with marketers to improve the appeal of a brand by resorting to celebrity endorsement. Celebrities, unlike non – celebrities, can significantly improve the image of a product, and render an advertisement outstanding. In fact, a global celebrity can successfully traverse language barriers and promote a product in the international market. They serve to develop a para – social relationship, despite the absence of direct contact with consumers (Tantiseneepong, Gorton, & White, 2012, p. 57). A major advertising strategy is to resort to celebrity endorsers. In this advertising technique, a famous person recommends a product in an advertisement. It has been demonstrated by several studies that celebrity endorsers enhance recall rates with regard to marketing communications. Moreover, this strategy achieves a positive impact upon the attitude of consumers with regard to the brand (Boyland, Harrold, Kirkham, & Halford, 2012, p. 659). Consequently, there is an increase in the likelihood that these consumers would purchase the product. As such, these celebrities increase sales, due to an increase in attention towards advertisements, in which they participate. Furthermore, there is an extension of the celebrities’ credibility from their areas of fame to the product that they endorse (Boyland, Harrold, Kirkham, & Halford, 2012, p. 659). Moreover, sensationalism has made its way into marketing strategy, as consumers tend to identify to a greater degree with products that are endorsed by the so called regular guy. As a result, advertisers now believe that celebrity endorsement is very effective. The relationship between

Prison Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Prison Culture - Essay Example The inmate subculture shows the lives of inmates but it varies from one prison institution to another (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2009). Being deviants in society, the inmate subculture is often not in accordance with the values of society and is opposed to institutional rules. What may be regarded as deviant behavior and unacceptable in the free world is encouraged and rewarded inside prison walls (Clemmer, 1940) There are two theories that explain the formation of an inmate subculture (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2009). The first is the deprivation theory which states that the inmate culture is formed in response to the deprivations in prison life. The deprivations experienced by inmates are those of deprivation of liberty, autonomy and security, deprivation from the use of goods and services, and deprivation of heterosexual relationships (Sykes, 1958). The other theory is the importation theory which maintains that the inmates bring with them their subculture from the outside world. There ar e different types of inmate subculture as discussed by Irwin and Cressey (1962).

Agriculture paper on your chosen culture Assignment

Agriculture paper on your chosen culture - Assignment Example The goosefoot, sump weed and sunflowers were the first crops to be domesticated and cultivated by the Native American Indians, most especially along the Mississippi River (Agriculture American Indian, 2003). The development of agriculture advanced with the invention of further agricultural methods such as irrigation, which allowed the American Indians to produce food crops constantly, resulting in the beginning of the cultivation of corn starting 3400 A.D. Thus, by 1000 A.D., the Native American Indians had already narrowed down their crop cultivation to three major food crops namely the corn, squash and beans (Nabhan, 1989). By the time of the European contact, the Native Indian Americans were already producing food at a large scale, capable of keeping their community throughout the year without shortages. The food crop production methods of the American Indian did not entail fertilizing the land using organic matter. On the contrary, they maintained soil fertility through planting their crops as a mixture of corn, beans and squash within the same piece of land, allowing the crops to re-fertilize the land though nitrogen fixation. The custom of the Native Indian Americans was to abandon the exhausted land once it proved to start becoming less productive, and in turn cleared other new lands (Hurt, 1987). Further development and civilization saw the development of village sovereignty, which claimed certain territories of land as their own, and then tilled the land to provide for the village community. The family lineage system was also recognized as the basis of land ownership among the village residents, where the family heads could be allocated specific pieces land for their own agricultural production (Agriculture American Indian, 2003). However, following the European contact and the subsequent settlement of the Europeans in North America, different Native American

Religious Teachings and Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Religious Teachings and Business Ethics - Essay Example The Utilitarian approach holds to the idea that societies should strive for the best for the most people. Jeremy Bentham eighteenth-century philosopher wrote, "The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation" (Fisher & Lovell 2003, p. 95). The writer/philosopher John Stuart Mills also wrote extensively on Utilitarianism (Daft 2005). Individualism is viewed as the essentially opposite of Utilitarianism. The Individual approach maintains that right moral choices lead to what is in the best long-term interest of the individual. German economist and sociologist Max Weber's influential essays on capitalism emphasized individual efforts and the accumulation of personal wealth (The Free Encyclopaedia 2007). The Moral Right approach values fundamental human rights and identifies six moral subcategories; free consent, right to privacy, right to freedom, of conscious, right to free speech, right to due process and the right to life and safety (Daft 200 5). Finally, the Justice approach promotes the idea of moral decision making and is based on standards of equity, fairness, and impartiality. Daft identifies three distinct forms of justice(2007). Distributive justice governs the right of people to be treated fairly without discrimination based on arbitrary characteristics. Procedural justice proscribes that rules should be applied consistently and compensatory justice argues that people should be compensated for injury and loss (Daft 2007). Certainly, all four of these perspectives can be identified in most major world religions. In order to set a proper stage for the discussion of religion and its place in business ethics, it is important to provide an overview of the historical influences on the matter. One of the first moral codes to impact mankind stemmed from the religious society of Judaism. In the books of the Bible, there are plentiful references as to how the faithful should conduct themselves in relation to their neighbors, family, and friends. The figures in the Old and New Testaments of Bible; Solomon, David, Moses, and Jesus of Nazareth; were most certainly well known for their ethical teachings. Important philosophers and ethical teachers can be identified throughout human history.  Ã‚  

The investigation in the effect of the Country of Origin towards Essay

The investigation in the effect of the Country of Origin towards Consumer perception of luxury brand product; case study of Thai consumer - Essay Example There are actually several issues involved here; the place of manufacture, the brand and the company; and it is the individual preference or an image that is the combination of one or more or all that matters in consumer perception and therefore the influence of one or all these factors is what is broadly considered as the cognitive value. The literature review will therefore cover all these aspects and a few more in order to understand the implication that is termed as the COO effect on purchase decisions. Sometimes the preference of the customer is narrower and in that sense he or she prefers goods produced within the home country for reasons of superiority or quality. In such cases it is termed as ethnocentricity and this becomes a reason for negativity towards COO. In other cases the patronage of the home country products is due to the perception that it weakens the economy and it is a show of unpatriotic behaviour to prefer goods produced elsewhere. This brings in the concept of economic nationalism. This too aids the negativity towards COO. This review will cover these features as well to understand how COO is used by both the consumer and the company and how they finally influence purchase decisions. The research objective of the paper is to resolve this issue in relation to the luxury items, more specifically to the Thai consumer’s attitude towards the Long Champ brand handbag manufactured in France and China; significantly of the three factors of 25Country of origin including Brand image, Country of Origin of Manufacture and Country of origin of Brand.  Due to globalization and liberalisation the worldwide market of all goods, including the luxury items, has crossed national boundaries and has posed various problems for companies. Consumer behaviour is the driver of demand and this literature review will undertake

Ecosystem and Major Agricultural Land Essay Example for Free

Ecosystem and Major Agricultural Land Essay Today, biodiversity is exposed to a lot of fatal threats: destruction of habitat, pollution, over-exploitation and climate change. According to Ray Harris (2002), building cities on farmland leads the ruin of territory, for example those in California. He pointed out that nearly half of key major agricultural land in California is filled with buildings. Pearce and Williams (2008) also argued that the large areas of Brazilian rainforest have been wiped out, and this clearing forest for timber is one of the factors of the destruction of habitat. Biodiversity is also exposed to pollution. Pearce and Williams further stated that oil spilled in the sea kills animals and plants (2008). For instance, in France, Amoco Cadiz leaked about 0.25 million tons of crude oil in 1978, and it was the key damage to environment. Moreover, Chen et al conducted the research and discovered that the vulture population in India decreased due to over consuming insect killers from grass (2009). It showed using pesticides on farmland is harmful to ecosystem. Over-exploitation and climate change are also considered as hazards to biodiversity. In relation to over-exploitation, it can eliminate species, a position supported by Chen et al. They examined the research and observed that Cod died out Newfoundland in Canada in 20th century due to over-fishing (2009). Regarding climate change, higher temperatures can kill animal and plant species (Alvin, 2010). Hibernating animals may wake early due to the warm weather, and they are usually suffering from no food available.

Media and Public Perceptions of crime

Media and Public Perceptions of crime Crime stories and representations are, and have always been, a popular focus of the mass media. The percentage of media content that is constituted by crime images and stories obviously will depend on the definitions of crime used. A glimpse at the television guide, the movies listings in the cinema, or press headlines, will highlight both the interest the general population has in crime and criminals, and the key role the media play in describing all features of criminal behaviour. People are excited with crime and justice (Howitt, 1998). From films, books, newspapers, magazines, television broadcasts, to everyday talks, we are continuously participating in crime talk. A large amount of this crime will be fictional, others, real life, and our enthusiasm for reading and watching about both seems to be evident. Television documentaries, news programmes and local or national newspapers emphasise and discuss crime and criminal justice issues on an everyday basis. Stories about crime are a more limited proportion of news, varying according to medium (e.g. radio, television, or print journalism) and market (e.g. quality or popular journalism). In this chapter we will analyse how the media influence public opinion through social cognitive theory and information processing theory. The publics knowledge and understanding of crime, criminal justice, police forces and police investigations, is often derived from the media and is greatly based on what they have watched or heard through various media forms (Jewkes, 2011). More generally, it is not feasible for people to know everything about society through their own experience thus the media has the role of informing and entertaining people. It is important to say that several studies have found a correlation between people views about crime and the criminal justice system, and the media. Dorfman (2001) found that 76 percent of the public said they modulated their opinions about crime from what they see or read in the news compared to those who get their primary information on crime from personal experience at 22 percent. It is not surprising that the academic interest in the field of criminology and criminal justice is growing as studies showed the popular media and general public interest in this area has the hi ghest percentage (Jewkes ,2011). Heath and Gilbert (1996) initiated that the association among media productions and offence is contingent on the features of the communication and the viewers. Production of great amounts of neighbourhood offence news creates enlarged fear between the outsized public, (Brillon, 1987; Sheley and Ashkins, 1981) whilst the presentation of great sums of non-local offence news has the contradictory result by construction the local audience feel safer (Liska and Baccaglini, 1990). Also, Chiricos et al (2000) found out that local and nationwide news are connected to fear of felony. The result of neighbouring news on fear of crime is stronger for people in elevated offence locations and persons who have passed through victimisation. Public perspectives toward police are in general positive (Huang and Vaughn, 1996). Nevertheless, there are a small number of studies that considered the medias control on peoples ratings of police force efficiency. A large amoun t of the literature concentrates on media depictions of police officers and results expose two contradictory views. Some researchers suggest that the police are displayed positively in the media, whilst other study argues that the police are unenthusiastically portrayed in the media (Pollak and Kubrin, 2007). Police presentations are often over-dramatised and romanticised by imaginary television felony dramas while the news media display the police as daring, qualified crime fighters (Surette, 1998; Reiner, 1985). In television crime dramas, the mainstreams of crimes are solved and unlawful suspects are successfully detained (Dominick, 1973; Estep and MacDonald, 1984; Carlson, 1985; Kooistra et al. 1998, Zillman and Wakshlag, 1985). Likewise, news presentations have a tendency to overstate the percentage of crimes that consequence in catch which projects a representation that police are more successful than official statistics show (Sacco and Fair, 1988; Skogan and Maxfield, 1981; Marsh, 1991; Roshier, 1973). The sympathetic vision of policing is partially a result of a police forces people relations scheme. Coverage of practical police actions creates a representation of the police as effectual and well-organised investigators of crime (Christensen, Schmidt and Henderson, 1982). Therefor e, a constructive police display strengthens usual opinions to law and order that engage enlarged police attendance, cruel penalties and rising police power (Sacco, 1995). Modern offences-solving shows like CSI, Law Order and a range of spin-offs has obviously increased public cognition of the function that science can take part in solving crimes and gathering proof which may be used to help convict the criminals. Also, numerals of researchers suggest that a symbiotic association subsists among news media workers and the police. It is argued that the police and the media involve in a commonly advantageous connection (Jewkes, 2011). The media wants the police to give them with rapid, trustworthy sources of offence information, while the police have a vested attention in retaining a constructive public image (Ericson, Baranek, and Chan, 1987; Fishman, 1981; Hall et al, 1978). Nonetheless, other researchers suggest that the police are not displayed completely positive in the news media. For example, Surette (1998) argues that docu-dramas and news small programs symbolise the police as heroes that fight bad people, up till now publish and broadcast news exemplify the police as unproductive and useless. Likewise, Graber (1980) argues that the wide-ranging public appreciates police presentation more positively compared with judges and alteration. In English courtrooms media coverage and the use of m icrophones or videos are not allowed (Howitt, 1998). However, Graber (1980) suggests that the media gives tiny information to critic police and that the news media centre on unhelpful criticism rather than helpful or triumphant crime prevention exertions. Basically, most media crime is penalised, but policemen are infrequently the heroes (Lichter and Lichter, 1983). Research examining the agenda-setting function of the news media has undergone a dramatic re-conceptualisation in recent years. No longer is research based on the nation noted by Cohen that the press may not be successful in telling us what to think but is stunningly successful in telling us what to think about (Cohen, 1963, p.13). Indeed, researchers now argue that, under certain circumstances, the news media do tell people what to think by providing the public with an agenda of attributes a list of characteristics of important newsmakers. Individuals mentally link these mediated attributes to the newsmakers to a simila r degree in which the attributes are mentioned in the media (Marsh, Ian, Melville and Gaynor, 2008). The Social Cognitive Theory is also called social learning, observational learning, or Modelling. This theory has its roots in psychology. This communication theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. His idea was that people watch and learn by others, specifically they perform and imitate behaviours through observation by other people. In todays days increasingly media- society, the mass media communication becomes the basis of observational learning. In order to appropriately learn from the media a person must be exhibited to the media, then be able to encode and memorise the event, and finally be able to decode their view of the media into a suitable reply. This theory deals partly with media and how it affects behaviours. The modelling theory is mostly applied to the consequences of aggressive media on behaviour, but it can be applied to other variables like sex, pro social, or purchasing behaviour. Because of the powerful role the mass media get in the world, considera te the psychosocial mechanisms throughout representative communication effects human thought, affect, and action is of importance. Social cognitive theory provides an agentic conceptual framework in which to examine the decisive factors and mechanisms of such effects. Human behaviour has often been explicated in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behaviour is formed and forced either by ecological influences or by inside moods. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial operations in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). In this alternative view of self and society, individual factors in the figure of cognitive, affective, and biological events; behavioural patterns; and environmental events all function as interacting factors that influence each other (Bandura, 1986, 2001a). People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-determining, not just reactive organisms formed by ecological events or inside forces. Human self-development and al teration are enclosed in social systems. Furthermore, personal organisation functions within a wide system of socio-structural influences. In these agentic communications, people are producers and also products of societal regimes. Private group and social arrangement function as co determinants in an included causal structure rather than as an intangible duality. Seen from the socio-cognitive viewpoint, peoples nature is a huge capability that can be shaped by straight and observational experience into a range of shapes within natural limits. To say that a main distinctive mark of people is their exceptional elasticity is does not to mean that they have no character or that they appear structure- less (Midgley, 1978). The flexibility, which is inherent to the nature of humans, depends on neurophysiological mechanisms and structures that have developed over time. These higher neural systems specialised for dealing out, remaining, and employing coded information give the ability for the very abilities that are noticeably human-genital symbolisation, foresight, axiological self-arrangement, pensive self-consciousness, and symbolic message (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). Humans have developed a higher capability for observational learning that gives them the opportunity to enlarge their knowledge and skills quickly through information transferred by the rich range of models. Indeed, practically all behavioural, cognitive, and influencing learning from straight experience can be succeed representatively by observing peoples actions and its results for them (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal Zimmerman, 1978). A large amount of social learning derives either knowingly or unknowingly from models in ones direct surroundings. However, a large amount of information about people values, ways of thinking, and behaviour norms is acquired from the lengthy modelling in the symbolic setting of the mass media (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). The effects of media on the public can also be explained through information processing models which have been developed by cognitive psychologists (Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). Information-processing research suggests that people have cognitive constructions, called schemas, which organise peoples thinking (see chapter 2). A persons system of schemas stores independent faiths, attitudes, principles, and choices (Rokeach, 1973). The schemas are straight concentration to related information, driven its understanding and assessment, provide conclusions when information is absent or vague, and make easy its memory (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 173). Schemas do not select out all unknown or rough information, there are not filter of memory, they just help peoples mind to organise their thoughts. As Bennett (1981) argues, that information process, substantially fabricates parts of recognition and idealistic accusations and new Scholars have used many terms such as scripts, infere ntial sets, frames and prototypes to explain this situation. Information-processing theory identifies and assists clarify how stances derive from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples pre-existing beliefs. (Entman, 1989) The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus interferes with the implied model in much of the media research. People are vulnerable to considerable media effects, according to the information processing theory, despite of the autonomy model suggestions which support that people ignore the most new or dissonant media reports. In the information-processing viewpoint, a person first values a media report for salience. If salient, the person works out the news according to rotes established in the schema system. Processing may drive the person either to store the information or abandon it; if the information stored, people may adopt new beliefs or change old beliefs (Entman, 1989). Social Psychology and Media effects Social psychologists talk about conformity and they argue that people act as group and define things and form their opinions as group, as the majority do. It is possible that a person has a different opinion from the group but the influence that he or she receives is much more dynamic. Thus, people change their opinion about a subject to suit to groups opinion (Gross, 2010) People modify their opinion in response the information that they receive from others, also when people do not feel that they have the accurate perception about a subject they look to others to perceive the stimulus situation accurately. This is called informational social influence (Bordens and Horowitz, 2000) But sometimes people change perception in response to pressure to conform to a norm or in order to gain social approval and avoid rejection they agree with the group because of their power (Wren, 1999)

Innovation And Technology Management Media Essay

Innovation And Technology Management Media Essay Ever since cameras were developed, it had evolved into many different types. This report will be focusing on the improvement of different types of camera, from film to digital used by consumers. A few case studies of camera makers will also be included to show how innovation affects each company. A camera is a device that captures images and the images were stored in the device or transmitted to another location. These images may be still or moving images. Still images means photograph while moving images can be videos or movies. The term camera was from the word camera obscura which was an early mechanism used to project images. Camera obscura is an optical device which can project surrounding image on a screen and used in drawing and for entertainment. Camera obscura consists of a box with an opening in one side. The light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside causing an image of the scene being reproduced but was turned upside down, with the color and perspective being preserved. The image will then be projected onto a piece of paper and traced which produced a highly accurate representation of the scene. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Camera_obscura_box.jpg/220px-Camera_obscura_box.jpg Figure 1: Drawing of camera obscura A camera may work with the light of the visible spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. It generally consists of an enclosed hollow box with an opening in one side for external light to pass through and a recording or viewing surface for capturing the light at the other side. Most of the cameras will have a lens being placed at the front of the cameras opening which is used to gather the incoming light and focus all or part of the image to the recording or viewing surface. The sizes of the opening are mostly controlled by using a diaphragm mechanism but some of them will use a fixed size opening. Most of the cameras today use an electronic image sensor for storing photographs on flash memory. Before that, from the 20th century, photographic films were used For a typical still camera, it takes a photo at a time when the user presses the shutter button unless the user uses continuous fire mode. As for a typical movie camera, it continuously takes 24 film frames per second when the shutter is pressed and holds on until the shutter is released. Some movie camera works by pressing the shutter button once and the second time will stop it. http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcThEehclSMeXPhA1DEisnDoFw1w5_YCT5-6TFcNfv5q30kXSs-p-g http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTxh6ovUrXMGAZPP7tlsthvgrJ5jiMvKJD8swHykuo80AdRgOGT Figure 2: Digital still camera Figure 3: Digital movie camera Until today, cameras has evolved from the camera obscura and continued to change through many generations of photographic technology, including daguerreotypes, calotypes, dry plates, film and different types of digital cameras. Background In the past, camera obscura was used by people for drawing or viewing purposes. In 1827, the first permanent photograph was made using a sliding wooden box camera which used the concept of camera obscura to build. Although camera obscura was already available before 1827, there was no way to preserve the images produced by it apart from manually tracing the images. The preservation of the images was made possible after the invention of photographic lapel processes. These preserved images were then being called as photographs. The earliest cameras were of room sized, which were able to accommodate one or more people inside. By Niepces time, the camera technology had gradually evolved. Cameras became more compact, making portable handheld cameras which were suitable for photography possible. Although cameras technology had been keep improving, a camera in its barest form is still simply a light tight container that used a lens with iris, a shutter that has variable speeds and contains a sensitive piece of media. The media is either film or a digital sensor. http://www.photographica.nu/cameracol/dall273.jpg Figure 4: sliding wooden box camera Types of cameras Currently there are different types of camera in the market. The different types of consumers cameras are as following: Digital camera, a camera that takes video or still photographs by recording images on an electronic image sensor Remote camera, a camera placed by a photographer in areas where the photographer generally cannot be Movie camera, a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film Pocket instamatic camera, a series of inexpensive, easy-to-load camera Single-lens reflex camera, a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured Twin-lens reflex camera, a type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length. Video camera, a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition Camera phone, a mobile phone which is able to capture still photographs and video Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera, a type of digital system cameras equipped with an interchangeable lens. Technology Developments Film Camera When the first camera was invented, it used an engraving which was placed onto a metal plate coated in bitumen and then exposed it to light. The shadowy areas of the engraving will block the light while the whiter areas allowed the light to react with the chemicals on the plate. When the metal plate was placed into a solvent, an image will appear. The photograph required eight hours of light exposure to create and after appearing, it would soon fade away. In 1839, a more convenient and effective method of photography was developed. Daguerres process fixed the image onto a sheet of silver plated copper. The silver surface was polished and coated in iodine to create a surface that was sensitive to light. The plate was then putted in a camera and exposed for a few minutes. After the image was painted by light, the plate was bathed in a solution of silver chloride. This process created a lasting image which would not change even if exposed to light. With this process, daguerreotype cameras were created. The cameras used in the daguerreotype process were made by opticians and instrument makers. The camera had a sliding box design with lens placed in the front box and a smaller box was slid into the back of the larger box. The focus was controlled by sliding the rear box forward or backwards. When the sensitized plate was placed in the camera, the lens cap would be removed to start the exposure. In 1879, the dry plate consisting of a glass negative plate with a dried gelatin emulsion was invented. The dry plates could be stored for a period of time. With this dry processes, hand held camera was now possible as it absorbed light very quickly. In 1888 the box camera which uses dry plate was introduced. The box camera was a wooden, lighted tight box with a simple lens and shutter that was factory filled with film which allows for 100 shots. The photographer pushed the shutter to produce a negative. Once the film was used up, the camera with the film still in it was mailed to the factory where the film was removed from the camera, processed and printed. The camera was then reloaded with film and returned. In 1889 flexible roll film was invented. The film has a base that was flexible, unbreakable and could be rolled. Emulsions coated on a cellulose nitrate film base made the mass produced box camera a reality. In the mid-1914, 35 mm camera was invented. The camera used 35 mm roll film which was developed based on the flexible roll films. In the early 1940s, color films were brought to the market. These films used the modern technology of dye-coupled colors in which a chemical process connects the three dye layers together to create an apparent color image. In 1948, the first Polaroid camera was sold to the public. The camera allows the photographer to create an instant photograph. The disposable camera was introduced in 1986. It was a single use camera which allowed the photographer to take photo until the film was used up. After which the photographer will send the film for processing and the camera would be disposed. Digital Camera Need to group into sub sections of point and shoot (or known as compact digital cameras), Video cams, digital SLR and include camera phones here. For each section, show examples through the use of pictures. In 1981, the first consumer camera was produced by Sony. It takes still photographs by recording image on an electronic image sensor. Digital and film cameras shared an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image. In 1986, the first sensor used to detect megapixels was invented by Kodak. In the same year, a prototype for an analog electronic SLR camera which was able to store images digitally was created by Nikon. In early 2000, the first digital SLR directed at consumers was released by Fujifilm. In 2008, mirrorless interchangeable lens camera emerged. Unlike a digital SLR, it does not have a mirror based optical viewfinder. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Leica_M9_Framework.jpg/220px-Leica_M9_Framework.jpg Figure 4: Mirrorless interchangeable lens camera Camera Handphone In 2000, the first camera phone was developed by Sharp. The phone had 0.1 megapixels sensor and 256 color display. In 2003, Samsung introduced the first 1 megapixels camera phone. In the same year, Casio introduces the first 2 megapixels phone. In 2004, Samsung introduced the first 3.2 and 5 megapixels phone. In 2005, Samsung introduced the first 7 megapixels phone. In 2006, Samsung introduces the first infrared camera phone and the first 10 megapixels camera phone. At this time, more than 50% of the world handphone had camera in it. http://c2499022.cdn.cloudfiles.rackspacecloud.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/01/samsung-sch-b600-10-megapixel-cellphone.jpg Figure 5: Samsung 10 megapixels phone In 2007, the first 5 megapixels camera phone with 3x optical zoom was introduced by Samsung. In 2008, Digital Imaging Systems announced first 9 megapixels camera phone and Samsung introduced first 8 megapixels camera phone. In 2009, Samsung introduced first 8 megapixels camera phone with touchscreen and LG launched the slimmest 8 megapixels camera phone. In the same year, Samsung also introduced first 12 megapixels camera phone with 3x optical zoom. In 2010, the first 14 megapixels camera phone was introduced by Altek and Sony ericsson introduced the first 16 megapixels camera phone. At this time, more than 81% of the worlds cell phone had camera in it. In 2012, Nokia introduced the first 41 megapixels camera phone. Nokia 808 Pureview Figure 6: Nokia 41 megapixels camera phone Cases Studies Introduction The purpose of this section is to clearly illustrate that having good innovation and technology strategy management techniques are of paramount importance to sustaining any business. The authors will analyze how major companies such as Canon remain prosperous in the market, while also analyzing the fall of a once hugely successful giant in the imaging business, Kodak. Case study of Kodaks Rise and Fall Rise of Kodak: Kodak was one of the major leading brands and pioneers of the camera making business. Founded in 1880, its rise to dominance of the imaging industry came after its introduction of color films and Instamatic camera to the market in the 1960s.The companys near monopoly of film businesses continued in the 1970s as sales skyrocketed to a point where it had 90% of film and 85% of camera sales in the United States of America according to a 2005 case study for Harvard Business School. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/22/john-naughton-kodak-lessons). Fall of Kodak: By the 1980s, the emergence of a serious competitor in Fujifilm and Kodaks dominance in the US market was undermine after Fujifilm gained a share of the market by offering lower-priced film and supplies as well as adopting very aggressive marketing which included winning sponsorship rights to be the official film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, an opportunity which Kodak ironically passed up. During the 1990s, although Kodak tried to maintain itself as a healthy business by diversifying to other areas of business (including medical ,pharmaceutical (http://www.csub.edu/kej/documents/economic_rsch/2012-04-23.pdf),printers for both consumer and commercial use as well as chemical manufacturing.), these businesses were all bought and not developed in-house leading to income being shared (http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/01/how-fujifilm-survived). Eventually when sales from film developing and printing went into sharp decline nearing year 2000,earnings from these additional businesses simply do not scale up to the revenue gained from its core business which relied on film. In addition to the above, the development of digital photography technology and Kodaks own hesitancy of making the switch from film photography to digital photography proved to be one of the major causes of its eventual demise. This is clearly depicted as even though Kodak was a pioneer of digital cameras (Kodak first introduced it in 1975), the product was dropped as there was fear that it would threaten its core photographic film business which was hugely successful then. Sales and revenue soon begun to go into a decline with the arrival of the digital age and a change in core business model was made ultimately. Kodak soon introduced a range of digital cameras, inkjet printers as well as became one of the first to launch a photosharing website (www.ofoto.com) between the 1990s and 2000s to cope with the need to transform with the digital age. While efforts were made to transform and keep up with the digital photography, its business model and technology strategy was still flawed as Kodak still revolved around the idea of printing photos. For instance, in spite of being pioneers of photosharing online, Kodaks website merely served as a vessel for providing a service for online ordering of prints. (http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505143_162-57363629/why-kodak-failed-and-how-to-avoid-the-same-fate/) In addition, the authors observed that despite innovating in the correct direction enjoying huge success with its line of digital cameras in the early 2000s, Kodak failed to anticipate the dynamics of digital photography and had no alternatives when consumers are no longer interested in photo printing but, sharing photos online in social media websites such as Flickr, Instagram and Facebook. Kodak being overly diversified, adopted the wrong technology strategy and did not exploit and capitalize early on a core digital camera technology Kodak pioneered, while investing heavily in developing technology for taking pictures in mobile phones and other digital devices. As a result, this allowed other companies such as Canon, Nikon and Sony to overtake and innovate further to produce hugely successful lines of digital cameras which eventually dominate the digital photography market. Furthermore, Kodaks success with digital cameras was short-lived towards 2010 when smartphones technology advanced and begun to include powerful cameras which are just as capable as the pocket digital cameras that Kodak was manufacturing. The following figure illustrates how camera phones such as the iPhone have gained a strong foothold in the market share of most popular cameras amongst consumers. Conclusion In a nut shell while aligning our observations to the concepts of technology management, there were multiple reasons contributing to the downfall of the once powerful giant in imaging market, Kodak. But this cannot be attributed entirely to the failure of incorrect technology forecasting or a lack of innovation. In fact, a report did circulate among the leaders of Kodak depicting the eventual permanent shift from film to digital by 2010 in 1979. It can also be observed from the earlier part of this chapter that Kodak was not at a shortage in the area of innovation. Consequently, the authors believe that it was not doing the correct technology road mapping which allowed other brands of digital cameras and camera phones to overtake them in the imaging market, leading to its ultimate demise and bankruptcy. This can be broken down into following: -The over reliance on a single product for revenue (film) -Lack of in-house expertise when diversifying into other areas of business -Slow transition from film to digital age -Despite early success, failed to forecast that digital cameras would eventually have low profit margins as more companies entered the market in mid-2000s, along with the emergence of camera phones -Slow transformation from a then overly diversified chemical manufacturer to a company mainly focused on imaging Had Kodak been able to identify and develop technology alternatives before making a better technological investment decision such as perhaps investing in SLR technology or social media websites which allows photosharing such as Flickr, Kodak might have been able to avoid their present predicament. This therefore emphasizes the importance of technology road mapping, as not having alternatives for a set product needs within different timeframes can have detrimental effects on businesses overtime. Case study of Canon Background In this section the authors will analyze how Canon, a company much like Kodak in terms of innovation and diversification of businesses, manage to still stay as one of the major leaders imaging market while facing the same challenges of having to make the switch from film to digital photography and decline of photo printing. Technology Strategy and Forecasting Canon introduced Japans first ever 35-mm focal-plane-shutter camera at a time when all high-quality cameras originated form the Europe, in 1935. Immediately after its founding and similarly to Kodak, it saw the importance of diversification and acted promptly with the introduction of Japans first indirect X-ray cameras, office equipment (calculators) and notably Japans first plain paper copying machine in 1970. As a result, the company adopted the management slogan of cameras in the right hand, business machines in the left and by then the company had already globalized (branches were set up in Europe and New York) successfully as exports took up 50 % of the total sales. Unlike Kodak, Canon continued to emphasize on the importance of in-house expertise by unceasing innovation of technology with the aim of becoming the best in all major business areas, be it in imaging (both medical and consumer) or multifunctional copiers technologies. This is achieved through constant innovation efforts such as setting up collaboration with Kyoto University in joint research projects. Shortly in 1976, Canon introduced the worlds first SLR with embedded micro-computer (AE-1), delivering powerful performance and along with its good ergonomics, propelled it into worldwide popularity among amateur and professional photographers alike, marking the start of its strong foothold in the share of the imaging market besides other current majors such as Nikon and Sony up till now. Besides being a leader in imaging industry, Canon also invested greatly on innovation in the technology of printers for both business and personal use. Its multifunctional copier division was notably very successful enabling it to hold the highest market share in the industry for the last 2 decades. Conclusion While Kodak had started to slip into decline because of its over reliance on film, Canon adopted good technology strategy and demonstrated good technology road mapping by making the best technology investment decisions with focused, continual innovation on camera technology (notably SLRs) and multifunctional copier technology. Hence Canon embraced the decline of films, photoprinting and the gradual replacement of compact digital cameras by smartphones through gaining a strong position in market areas of amateur and professional photography with their innovation in digital SLRs. The figure above shows its dominance in digital photography alone with smartphones. Along with ever changing times, Canon continued to strengthen product competitiveness in major business areas which also includes multifunctional copiers. In conclusion, while Canon had many business areas, Canon were not over-diversified like Kodak and one major difference leading to Canons success in diversification was because of the in-house expertise and technology management Canon had in dedicated business areas, an implication that income would not be shared with other companies as these business areas were not bought. Conclusion Future predictions of camera industry Global Camera Industry The world photographic products market has generated sales of over $55 billion in 2010, according to MarketLine. Cameras are leading the market with a sale close to $35 billion which is more than 60% of the overall market. Growth is expected to be accelerating at a rate of more than 3% every year, bringing the whole market up to over $65 billion by 2015. This consists of cameras, optical instruments, video cameras and other photogenic equipment. Digital photography continues to take over the sales of traditional cameras and films. And this is expected with the upcoming future of the industry Market Outlook However, with technological advances companies will need to continue investing in research and development of new technologies to stay in industrys cutting edge. There will be demands of new technologies of the consumers. As mentioned previously, Canon embraced the decline of films and photoprinting by the innovation of digital cameras. With online photo sharing/storing websites like Flickr, Google Plus or even Facebook, the generation of films and photoprinting is almost over proven by what has happened to Kodak. However smart phone cameras are slowly replacing the digital cameras. (Many often people are taking photos with their iPhone or Samsungs smartphone.) The percentage of photos taken with cameras and smartphones are declining and rising individually. Smartphones now have cameras of great qualities and functionalities in terms of programs known as apps and they will slowly continue to eat into the camera market. This has been shown by the appearance of smartphone picture uploading apps or social media like Instagram, Path, Facebook and many others more. But this may not necessarily remove digital cameras totally off the market. With constant technological advances, cameras with high performance capacity will become cheaper to produce. It will become a cycle that what used to be expensive and high-end products becomes the old technology and is cheaper to produce due to the advances. So low end cameras is becoming something with more advanced features. The consumer video camera market too is declining. Consumers are using their smart phones or DSLR to shoot videos. The video camera market will only move in the higher end markets (video producers, film makers) in the near future. Conclusion From our case studies above, it shows how Kodak and Canon tried applying technology management in their company to produce innovative product to the consumer market. However economic and social factors too play a part in innovation. By looking at Canon, few reasons why they were successful in the imaging market were because of their constant innovation on SLRs , coupled with the fact they were always targeting the market share of photography hobbyists, both in entry levels and professional level photography. However even though incorporating technology and innovative management into a organization does not guarantee 100% success. It depends on many factors such as the society, economic, the current market situation or even any other external factors. Kodak had tried displaying technology and innovation management in the corporation, however they have failed. Their over reliance on a single product for revenue (film), the lack of in-house expertise when diversifying into other areas of business and their slow transition from film to digital age these were the few factors that has caused their downfall of today. Our predications for the next 10 years: à ¢-  3D still and moving pictures will become standard in the next 5 years à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cameras will have more on-board processing software that perfects the final image without the need for a computer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Images to be printed on and saved to wafer-thin electronic paper called e-paper. Recently showcased by LG this flexible, full colour display is the wave of the future, and could be used in so many different products including e-readers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Immediate upload of your image once taken to your favourite internet site with Bluetooth connection for cameras http://www.firstcall-photographic.co.uk/userfiles/file/digital_imaging_1990-2010.pdf Figure 1: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura Figure 2 3: http://www.sony.com Figure 4: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorless_interchangeable-lens_camera Figure 5: http://www.unwiredview.com/2007/01/09/10-megapixel-samsung-sch-b600-phone-nears-worldwide-launch/ Figure 6: http://www.nokia.com/global/products/phone/808pureview/specifications/

Car And Bicycle Brakes :: essays research papers

Caliper Brakes Effectiveness: good mechanical advantage as it allows the operator to brake with little effort on the hydraulic lever, which needs to be squeezed. Material: Calipers are fixed mount, opposed piston calipers cast from aluminium alloy. Calipers are the hydraulic clamp portion of the disc braking system. Manufactured from either ferrous or non-ferrous materials and bolted firmly to the suspension upright(or knuckle) the caliper holds the pads in place and, through the action hydraulic pistons actuated by the master cylinder, force them against the rotating surface of the disc when pressure is applied to the brake pedal. Friction Material: non asbestos brake pads Car differences: size is one major difference in car and bike systems. The systems can be totally different but still use hydraulic mechanisms. Cantilever Brakes Effectiveness: provide good power and modulation. They are very effective in stopping the bike because they provide a large stopping force, but the rider’s heel will hit the brake and may irritate the rider and cause the brakes to ruin. Material: includes 2 brake shoes and a brake pad Friction Material: non asbestos brake pads. Car differences: size and shape. Also consists of lighter materials. V Brakes Effectiveness: basically the same as above. Material: Friction Material: Car differences: Drum Brakes Effectiveness: Very good brakins system as they wear very slowly and are not afftected by weather. Also used with Disc Brakes. Being on the rear. Material: A bike drum brake is hand operated which is attached to the hub of the wheel, the shoes press on the inside of the drum. Friction Material: Non asbestos fibre. Car differences: In bikes they are hand operated and in cars they are foot. Drum brakes are completely different to hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic disc Brakes Effectiveness: Hydraulic brakes have a great mechanical advantage therefore are a very good design of braking system.